INFLUENCING FACTORS

Synopsis of the factors

This section provides a summary of factors that influence the health and productivity of African lakes, how they have changed and may change in future, to guide generation of management options. The health and productivity of the lakes is shaped by geophysical characteristics and human development factors. The geological characteristics are those factors that were molded by the geological history of individual lakes and vary little overtime. ... Human development factors are those factors arising out of human development activities and vary overtime. They have been classified under four board categories namely: Demographic characteristics; Fishes and fisheries; The lake habitat; and Basin characteristics; and Governance systems. Understanding the way human development factors change is important in management not only of the lake where they occur but can be applied across lakes with similar characteristics where data may be limited. It should be noted that the information given here is work in progress to facilitate discussion and will change with new information.
The original state of African lakes and other inland waters was molded by geological history. The situation changed when the human population started to increase and human development factors started to alter the health and productivity of the lakes. These alterations are expected to continue with human developments. This sections identifies the influencing factors and how they affect the lakes.
The influencing factors so far identified fall in six categories each covering a number of aspects Table: Influencing factors and related aspects. The first category comprises of geophysical characteristics which are shaped by the geological history of the lake. The other four categories comprise of the human development factors which are the main drivers of change of the health and productivity of aquatic systems Table: The state of influencing factors in some African lakes. The different influencing factors, how they have evolved over time, how they have or they are likely to affect the health and productivity of specific lakes were assessed to provide information which was used in development of management options and coming up with priority management interventions for individual lakes.



Geophysical characteristics

All lakes have unique geophysical characteristic such as morphometry, age, area, shoreline length, depth, water volume, catchment and associated rivers determined by their geological history Table of geophysical characteristics of the lakes . These characteristics do not normally change but influence physical, chemical conditions, and the biological communities in individual lakes. They also have some influence on how human development factors affect individual lakes.

Development factors

Development and factors Table of some of the development factors act independently or in combination to influence the health and productivity of African lakes. These factors may change overtime and even contribute to emergence or proliferation of other factors. There is need to monitor and manage the factors regularly to regulate their impact on ecosystem health and productivity. Key among the influencing factors include:

Development factors

Development factors

Development factors

The different factors, their consequences, how they are likely to affect the health and productivity of African lakes, and synergies with other lakes of the world are briefly outlined to stimulate discussion and to guide sustainable use of African lakes.

Demographic characteristics

Human population growth

The main factor that has driven alterations in the health and productivity of African lakes especially since the beginning of the 20th century when human populations on the African continent started to increase rapidly have been the economic demands of a rapidly increasing human population.

The areas around the lakes and associated rivers has the highest human population density which in some places is as high as 1000 persons’ km-2 Map with lakes and population density with a very fast growth rate of 2-5% per year, which is among the highest in the world and is much higher than the global rate of 1.1%. About 60-70% of this population depend on agriculture for their livelihood. There are many other development activities in the lake basins such as: dam constructions; urban developments; mining, oil and gas exploration and exploitation; tourism; and navigation which provide livelihood opportunities but whose activities have an influence on the lakes. Sustainable development of these economic assets that are increasingly being grouped together as blue economy resources can contribute to transformative growth foreseen under the AU Agenda 2063.

Poverty and livelihoods

Persistently high population growth lead to much lower income per person and perpetuates poverty and affects livelihoods. The average poverty rate for sub-Saharan Africa stands at ~41% and 27 of the world's 28 poorest countries are in sub-Saharan Africa.

The number of poor people in Africa rose from 278 million in 1990 to 413 million in 2015 due to the high population growth rates. This will make it difficult for Africa to reach the SDG of eradicating poverty by 2030 if income sources are not diversified. The population in the lakes regions are poorest with about 50% living on $<1,25 per day. The nonmonetary dimensions of poverty such as nutritional, health status, and literacy have also been affected and are among the lowest in the world in many African countries. There is therefore need for deliberate efforts to develop blue economy resources to diversity livelihoods.

Sanitation and water related diseases

Sanitation facilities protect human health, and reduce poverty through access to clean drinking water and proper disposal of human waste. Poor sanitation increases the risk to diseases like cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery. The WHO has estimated that 827000

people in low and middle income countries die as a result of inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene each year. In sub-Saharan Africa ~319 million people lack improved clean water sources and 695 million lack improved sanitation. Riparian, especially fishing communities are among communities that lack clean water and have poor sanitation, which exposed them to high incidences of water related diseases and drives them deeper into poverty. There is high prevalence of water borne diseases among lakeside communities with 50% of the population suffering from water related diseases. There are also other water related diseases such as bilharzia and those that are highly prevalent among lakeside communities in Africa like HIV/AIDs. Water and sanitation facilities should be improved and water related issues addressed to improve livelihoods.

The human population density around African lakes is very high and dominated by youths. Their livelihood needs to be addressed and the population growth rate controlled.

Sanitation

Fishes and fisheries

Biodiversity

Fishes and fisheries are the main blue economy resources from African lakes. These lakes had and some of them still have the highest fish species diversity on earth with at least 2,000 fish species most of them endemic cichlids. These fishes are of very high

ecological, economic, and scientific importance. Intensification of human activities has contributed to changes in ecosystem and fish species diversity of the lakes. Stocks of most fish species >20 cm length have declined in most of the lakes due to over exploitation and habitat changes. For instance, stocks of native tilapia and riverine species such as Labeo spp declined and some of them completely disappeared from lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Malawi. Other species have been depleted following introduction and establishment of introduced species. Ecosystem diversity of the lakes has also changed due changes in ecosystem diversity associated with nutrient enrichment, climate change, and land degradation which have caused degradation of quality of aquatic habitats, enhanced eutrophication, stratification and anoxia and altered ecosystem and species diversity. There is need to conserve and sustainably use the ecosystem and fish species to enable the lakes provide the services derived from them.

Fishery exploitation

Fishery exploitation is a major source of nutrition, employment and export earnings on African lakes. However, unsustainable fishing practices have been a major cause and was the first factor to which depletion of fish stocks in African lakes was attributed.

This has been caused by improvement in fishing technology and failure to control fishing effort and use of destructive fishing gears and methods. At the beginning of the 20th century, fish stocks of most African lakes were exploited using traditional fishing gear such as basket traps, hooks and papyrus seines which were not very efficient and were limited to shallow nearshore areas. The fishing effort increased following introduction of nylon gillnets, improvement in fishing crafts, introduction of outboard engines and improved access to markets. Most fisheries in Africa are open access. These factors have created an incentive for more fishermen to enter the fishery and led to a depletion of the larger sized fishes. As larger sized fishes are depleted, fishermen shift to smaller gillnets to catch smaller sized species that may have been less exploited but also catch immature individuals of larger species which affects recruitment. For instance, in lakes Victoria and Malawi, after depletion in stocks of native tilapias, fishermen shifted to smaller mesh gillnets to exploit the smaller, originally less preferred haplochromines species which were still abundant but this also caught immature individuals of the tilapias. The stocks of these also declined as they are not resilient to heavy commercial exploitation. This has led to succession in elimination of fish stocks from large to smaller types and those that may be resilient to the influencing factors. There is therefore to determine the factors that contribute to depletion of some species and persistence of others and to put in place appropriate management measures for their management.

exploitation

Boats at a fish landing on Lake Victoria. Excessive fishing effort should be controlled.
File photo: Ogutu-Ohwayo

Fish introductions

Fish introductions has been used as a management option improve fisheries in lakes where fish stocks have been depleted to improve the fishery or create a fishery in a lake with an impoverished fish fauna. One classical example of this was the introduction of a large piscivorous

predator, Nile perch (Lates niloticus) and four tilapiine species: Oreochromis niloticus, O. leucostictus, Coptodon zilli and C. rendalli to lakes Victoria and Kyoga in 1950s following collapse of the fishery of the native Oreochromis species. The other was the introduction of the Lake Tanganyika clupeids (Limnothrissa miodon and Stolothrissa tanganyikae) into Lakes Kivu, Kariba and Cahora Bassa to improve fishery production. The introduction in Lake Kivu was to improve an impoverished fish fauna and that to Kariba and Cahora Bassa to create a fishery in newly created dams. The introduction of Nile perch and Nile tilapia in lakes Victoria and Kyoga led to dramatic increases in fishery yield. Establishment of Nile perch contributed to disappearance of 200 of an estimated 500 haplochromine species in Lake Victoria alone and was accompanied by changes in the environment, algae and invertebrate communities while Nile tilapia contributed to displacement of native tilapias. The lakes then became dominated by the introduced Nile perch and Nile tilapia, and a native pelagic cyprinid, Rastrineobola argentea. Thereafter, there was a resurgence of some haplochromine species in the lakes to which Nile perch had been introduced, but these were dominated by zooplanktivores and detritivores which survived under the changed conditions by altering their biological characteristics. There is need to understand the direction and consequences of introducing fishes in aquatic system to guide their management.

Emerging fisheries especially small pelagic fishes

The changes in ecosystem and fish species diversity have been accompanied by fish species succession, shifts in fish communities, and emergence of new fisheries. The most prominent shift has been to small pelagic cyprinid species whose contribution to

commercial catches in many African lakes increased (Albert 80%, Kivu 60%, Kyoga 20%, Malawi 35%, Tanganyika 65 %, and Victoria 45%) and similar changes have taken place in some Oceans. These changes could have been influenced by intensification of climate change after 1970s in line with the prediction by FAO that fisheries will shift to small pelagic opportunistic species as climate change intensified. These small pelagic fishes have fast growth rates, high relative fecundity, produce pelagic eggs, and are not habitat restricted which contributed to their success. They are likely to contribute much to future fisheries and nutrition in Africa under changing environmental conditions especially the increasing variability and change in climate. These fishes also have environmental and nutritional benefits. They are fished and processed using solar energy, are high in protein, and micronutrients including calcium, iron and zinc that are essential for healthy living and are eaten whole leading to ingestion of all its ingredients. They are, however valued less in monetary terms than the larger species but their role in combating nutrition and hunger especially for the poor communities including malnourished children should be factored in determination of their economic value. The other fish species that have persisted under increased human pressure and the changing environment in the lakes such as Nile perch, Nile tilapia and the resurging haplochromines are, like the small cyprinids either pelagic zooplanctivores or detritivores. There is need to understanding the factors that have contribute to resilience of emerging fishes and to put in place specific management plans for them.

Emerging fisheries

Mukene (Rastrineobola argentea), a pelagic cyprinid species has become the most abundant fish in Lake Victoria and should be harvested and processed properly to support nutrition
File photo: Ogutu-Ohwayo

Cage aquaculture

Aquaculture has been the world's fastest-growing food production system for decades, and is contributing more to food fish than wild capture fisheries. As capture fisheries on many African lakes have diminished, cage aquaculture has been introduced and has expanded rapidly in

natural lakes (Malawi, Tanganyika, Kivu, Victoria) and manmade lakes (Kariba and Volta). Cage aquaculture has potential to increase fish production and contribute to the fish supply deficit to feed the rapidly increasing human population especially in Africa. Production in cages can be more than ten times that in ponds per unit volume depending on managent. Cage aquaculture, however has socio-economic and environmental problems because most cages are located in shallow areas of aquatic systems and can impact critical biodiversity and breeding areas, can cause conflicts with other water uses and high stocking densities require good water quality. They can increase nutrient enrichment and pollution from food wastes, faecal materials, and therapeutics as well as introduction of invasive species. The rapid increase in cage culture is a great opportunity to increase fish production but should be undertaken using best management practices in site selection, and production practices.

Cage fish farming is increasing rapidly on some African lakes but should be practices using best management practices
File photo: Ogutu-Ohwayo

The lake habitat

Nutrient enrichment and eutrophication

Nutrient enrichment of African lakes with phosphorus and nitrogen is increasing. This is causing eutrophication and altering the health and productivity of the lakes. It leads to excessive growth of algae, proliferation of aquatic weeds, affect algal

productivity and biomass, oxygen levels, turbidity, proliferation of toxic algae, and shifts in invertebrate and fish communities. Nutrient enrichment is linked to development activities of the high population density including agriculture, deforestation, industrial and urban development that discharge wastes with high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus into aquatic systems. Eutrophication has increasingly become a major pollution problem since the mid twentieth century, has been observed on many African lakes, and is increasing. The activities in the catchment areas of the lake that cause nutrient enrich should be monitored and managed.

Changes in lake productivity processes

Lake productivity processes including physical, chemical, conditions, algal and invertebrate productivity, and fishery production of many African lakes have changed and invasive weeds increased alongside nutrient enrichment and eutrophication of the lakes.

This is best illustrated by Lake Victoria where the changes appear most advanced among African lakes and have been more extensively studies. During the first half of the 20th century the water column of Lake Victoria was well mixed and oxygenated to the bottom for most of the year, the algal community was dominated by diatoms, the zooplankton community by calanoid copepods, and the macro-invertebrate community by chaoborid midges. Lake productivity processes and fisheries production of the lake changed after 1970. The concentration of phosphorus doubled, silicon decreased 10 times, and nitrogen became deficient compared to historical values. Phytoplankton productivity doubled, algal biomass increased four times, water transparency decreased and algal species composition shifted from dominance of diatoms to blue green algae. There was an increase in stratification and anoxia. The zooplankton community changed from dominance of larger calanoid copepods to smaller cyclopoid copepods and the macroinvertebrate community from Chaoborids to Chironomids and the prawn, Caridina nilotica. Fisheries production increased almost ten time between 1980 and 2005. Changes have been observed in other African lakes. In Lakes Tanganyika and Kivu, rising water temperatures associated with climate warming and reduced wind speed is thought to have reduced nutrient mixing that supports pelagic food web and contributed to reduction in catches of pelagic fishes. Increased stability of the water column due to climate warming has also started to affect nutrients fluxes, primary and secondary production and the food web in Lake Malawi. Climate warming has also been recorded in Lake Albert but it influences on lake productivity processes have not been documented. There is need understand how changes in lake productivity processes under a changing environment influence fisheries production and to factor it in fisheries management plans.

Invasive weeds

Proliferation of invasive aquatic weeds has intensified on African lakes toward the end of the 20th century. Invasive aquatic weeds native to South America including water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes; Water fern, Salvinia molesta; water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes;

red water fern, Azolla filiculoides, and the parrot’s feather, Myriophyllum aquaticum have invaded lakes and rivers over much of Africa from South to North and West Africa. These weeds disrupt economic activities especially fisheries, water transport, hydropower generation, and provide suitable habitats for intermediate hosts of water borne diseases. Proliferation of these weeds has been linked to nutrient enrichment of the lakes which is increasingly becoming a problem in many African lakes. They mainly thrive in shallow waters or shallow bays of lakes. These weeds can be controlled through biological control using natural enemies from their native habitats. Efforts should be made to monitor and apply appropriate methods to control their proliferation.

Water hyacinth in a gulf of Lake Victoria that receives water from a waste treatment plant
Courtesy of Vianny Natugonza

Climate change

Climate variability and change has become a major driver of environmental challenge on African lakes since its intensification after 1970s. This has contributed to changes in the lake habitats through fluctuations in lake levels,

modification of wind speed, circulation dynamics, production processes, stratification, loading and recycling of nutrients, and oxygen. These changes have affected fishes and other biotic communities in lakes. It has also contributed to a shift in the composition of aquatic organisms to types that can tolerate the changed conditions. The impact of the increasing variability and change in climate on productivity and health of lakes should be monitored and adaptation and mitigation measures put in place.

Basin factors

The activities in the lake basin including, conversion of land especially to agriculture, deforestation, wetland degradation, damming, urban development, mining and tourisms are some of the factors driving alteration in the health

and productivity of African lakes. These expose the lakes to siltation, nutrient enrichment, pollutants and contaminants, degrade aquatic habitats, affect productivity and livelihoods.

Deforestation to clear land for agriculture and for charcoal and wetland degradation exposes that lakes to land based contaminants the smoke from biomass burning contains materials that can pollute the lake.

Land use change

Land use change has mainly involved conversion of land to agriculture, deforestation and wetland degradation. These changes expose the soil resulting in release of sediments, organic matter, agrochemicals, and drug residues into water bodies.

Fertilizers used on farms release nitrates and phosphates into water bodies leading to eutrophication. The impacts of land use change have been gradual, cumulative, and took time to manifest on most African lakes based on the intensity of human activities in the catchment area and the morphometry of the aquatic systems. From 1970 onwards, eutrophication and pollution started to manifest on some African lakes especially those with high population densities and economic activities in the lake basins such as Lake Victoria. Climate warming altered wind regimes, mixing dynamics and water column stability which mobilized nutrients especially phosphorus, nitrogen, and silicon into the water column. This changed algal and invertebrate productivity, water transparency, stratification, oxygen levels, and fish communities. The effects of climate warming on lake productivity processes has been reported in many African lakes including Victoria, Kivu, Tanganyika, and Malawi. Many of these changes will intensify with increasing human population and climate variability and change. They should, therefore be monitored to guide adaptation and mitigation measures. Specific efforts should be made to promote sustainable land management practices.

Cultivation up to the edge of lakes and rivers exposes them to land based contaminants and should be avoided

Damming

Dams have been, and continue to be constructed along rivers flowing in and out of African lakes to provide the hydropower needed for development and to create water reservoirs for irrigation and other uses. There are five hydropower dams along the Nile between Lake Victoria and

Albert in Uganda and one dam on Sondu Miriu river in Kenya. Regulation of water flow during dam operation affect Lake Albert most of whose water balance depend on Nile inflow. There are three hydropower dams along the Omo river and irrigation schemes in the Omo valley. Given that Lake Turkana gets 90% of its water from the Omo river, it has been estimated that its level could drop by as much as 20 meters due to dam operations. Lake Kivu contributed most (~55%) to the inflow into Lake Tanganyika. There are four dams along River Ruzizi between Kivu and Tanganyika and the way they are regulated will affect the water balance of Lake Tanganyika. There are also two hydroelectric dams along the Shire river that flows from Lake Malawi. Dams alter the ecological flow of the rivers and affect ecosystem services both upstream and downstream. This affects the environment and biodiversity of rivers and associated lakes and the way the dams are managed will affect especially downstream ecosystems.

Operating of dam can affect the river downstream as illustrated by this photograph showing a situation downstream during closure (left) and release of water (right).

Urbanization

There is rapid urbanisation along the shores and within the basins of some of the African lakes. Some of the basins, like that of the Lake Victoria is expected to become completely urbanized by 2030. The Lake Victoria basin has the largest number of urban centers among all

African lakes. There are at least seven large towns/cities (Entebbe, Kampala, Jinja, Kisumu, Homa bay, Musoma, Mwanza, Bukoba) along the shores of the lake and at least nine (Masaka, Mbarara, Busia, Kitale, Eldoret, Kakamega, Kisii, Migori, Geita, Biharamuro) in the Lake Victoria basin. There are at least four towns Bujumbura, Kigoma, Mpulungu, Uvira and Kalemie along the shores of Lake Tanganyika. The shores and basin of Lake Kivu is densely populated with urban areas including Kabare, Goma, Bukavu, Gisenyi, Kibuye, and Cyanguru. There are no major urban centers along the shore and basin of Lake Albert but this is expected to change with developments associated with oil exploitation. Urbanisation attracts high human population densities which put much stress on the resources and health of the lakes. Many of the urban areas release untreated sewerage, chemical and pollutants which accumulate which cause nutrient enrichment and pollution of water bodies. This has increased input of nutrients and pollutants into the lakes especially in urban areas which has altered their health and productivity and is increasingly making the water unsuitable for human consumption and the fish could reach a level where they become unsuitable for human consumption. There is therefore need to plan urban areas properly, manage wastes, identify, monitor and plan pollution sources.

Urban waste is sometimes released into lake without treatment. This should be avoided to maintain the health and productivity of the lakes.

Mining and oil exploitation

There are mineral deposits such as copper, gold and oil and gas in lakes and basins of African lakes which can promote economic transformation but exploitation can also contaminate the lakes. There is gold and sand mining in the Lake Victoria basin.

There are deposits of uranium and coal on the western shores and oil exploration on Lake Malawi. There are oil and gas reserves in the Ruzizi river basin. There are large quantities of methane being exploited to generate power in Lake Kivu. The area around Lake Edward is rich in salt, gold, gypsum, copper and oil. Salt mining is taking place on Lake Katwe next to Lake Edward and copper mining at Kilembe mines near lake George. The area around Lake Albert has large oil deposits and exploitation is at and advanced stage. There are oil reserves on the south-western shores of Lake Turkana. Residues and wastes from mineral exploration and exploitation may enter and contaminate the lakes with negative consequences for the health and productivity of the lake ecosystems and the users. For instance, contamination from wastes from Kilembe mines have been detected in Lake George which connects to Edward. Exploration and exploitation of the mineral and gas resources should be done in a manner that does not compromise the health of the lakes.

Tourism and recreation.

Tourism is very important in the economy of many African countries. Many African lakes are important tourism destinations because of proximity to national parks and game reserves, high biodiversity, and beautiful scenaries. Several tourism destinations exist on islands,

shorelines and beaches of Lake Victoria and there is potential for sport fishing in the lake. Lake Malawi has beautiful 'Mbuna' fishes which attract tourists to the lake. There are four national parks around Lake Tanganyika that offer tourist opportunities in addition to beautiful cichlid fishes. The area around Lake Kivu has game parks famous for gorilla and chimpanzee tracking and suitable for swimming, water skiing and wind surfing. Lake Edward is very important tourist areas with a beautiful rift valley scenery, high biodiversity, forest reserves and national parks (Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda and Virunga National Park in DRC). Lake Albert has high tourist potential with a beautiful waterfalls and Murchison falls national park. Lake Turkana has three national Parks (Sibiloi, Central and Southern Islands), and is an important bird area with more than 350 species of aquatic and terrestrial birds and has the largest remaining population of Nile crocodiles in the world. These areas are expected to develop further and the impact of their development on the health and productivity of the lakes should be monitored and incorporated in development and management plans of the lakes.

Elephant on Lake Edward. Many African lakes have national parks which are important in tourism and also reduce human impacts on the lakes.
Courtesy: Herbert Nakiyende

Ports, maritime transport and security

Ports and maritime transport are important transport, trade, and security on lakes and in the blue economy of the lake areas. There are ports and navigation routes linking different ports and landing sites on lakes and the riparian countries. There have been some border security issues on

the lakes including piracy. The urban and peri-urban areas along the shore of the lakes are also a major source of pollution. Development of blue economy resources will require a secure and health operational environment. Development of ports, landing sites, maritime transport should be part of sustainable use of the lakes.

Pollution

THuman development activities especially agriculture, mining, and urban development produce wastes that are carried to and pollute the lakes. Many of the chemicals used as pesticides and fertilizers are beneficial at low concentrations but when they

bio-accumulate in the environment and food webs they reach lethal levels. The major pollutants of aquatic systems include inorganic heavy metals, organic pollutants, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and plastics. Heavy metal pollutants include Lead, Copper, Zinc, and Nickel. Organic pollutants include phosphorus and nitrogen. Organochlorine pesticides include hydrocarbons such as DDT, dieldrin, toxaphene, lindane, and benzene hexachloride. Plastics pollution comes from polyethylene plastic packaging materials. The different types of pollutants have been recorded on African lakes especially in areas of high urban and agricultural activities. Inorganic pollutants inhibit primary production and growth of algae, invertebrates, and macrophytes. They affect growth, feeding, reproduction, and can cause neural disorders. They can damage vital organs such as the brain, heart, gills, liver, and kidneys. They can make the fish unsuitable for human consumption. Organic pollutants increase in primary production, cause eutrophication, affect dissolved oxygen concentration and water transparency, and shift algal communities to blue-greens that secret microcystins which are toxic to organisms including fish and man. The concentration of some of the pollutants have been observed to be above internationally accepted thresholds in certain locations of some African lakes. Pollution has received limited attention on most African lakes but it is an evolving silent killer. Efforts should be taken to identify and monitor pollution sources, their effects on ecosystem health, productivity and livelihoods and to manage them.

pollution

Wastes are a major source of pollution and a threat to ecosystem health and livelihoods and should be discarded properly.

Governance

The factors influencing the health and productivity of Africa lakes require good governance. This requires effective programs, policies, and institution. These, have like the other influencing factors, evolved in response to changing situations from

approaches which targeted single sectors like fisheries and have incrementally diversified to include multiple factors and sectors influencing the lakes from the lakes habitat and basins. The governance systems have evolved from traditional methods to those established during early expeditions by colonial governments to national systems of the independent states. African lakes appear to have been so valuable that during partitioning of Africa the boundaries had to pass through lakes to allow countries to have a share of a given lake. Consequently, although governance of the lakes takes place at national levels most lakes require regional mechanism to harmonize measures between countries sharing a lake to be implemented at national level.

Programs

There have been programs on the African lakes and their basin to address the factors that have influenced their health and productivity in time and space. Originally, the lakes were governed by traditional methods. The first documented efforts were those following the first

international expeditions to the lakes such as that of by Graham in 1928 to Lake Victoria which arose out the need to develop management measures for the native tilapias which was declining. Thereafter, established permanent national research, academic and management institutions have implemented programs and generated information and data that has guided policy for management of the lakes sometimes in collaboration with international collaborators. There have been specific interventions to address key issues affecting the lakes supported by development partners such as UNDP/FAO, USAID, EU, DFID, IDRC, and GEF/World Bank. For instance, Lake Victoria has had a number of interventions to address key issues. The UNDP/FAO Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP) of 1969 to 1971 estimated the fish stocks of the lake and evaluated the use of trawling in exploitation of haplochromines that were abundant in the lake. There were three phases of The Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project supported by the EU to develop a fisheries management plan for the lake following emergence of the Nile perch fishery. There have been two phases of multi-sector Lake Victoria Environment Programs supported by GEF/World Bank since 1997 to address environmental issues of the lake and a third one is being developed. There have been projects to improve management and utilization of the increasingly abundant small pelagic fishes supported by FAO, EU and IDRC. Other programs supported by development partners and collaborators have provided information on fisheries, environment and socio-economics of Lake Victoria. Similar programs have been implemented on other African lakes. There is, therefore, considerable information that has been generated but this has not been synthesized to build a continuous station on the different lakes. Efforts should be made to take stock of available information, synthesize and make it available for management of the lakes.

Policies.

The information generated by the programs has been used to develop policies to address issues that have affected the health and productivity of lakes. The lake-wide survey of the Lake Victoria by Graham in 1928 set mesh size limits to regulate exploitation of the native tilapia fishery

and led to establishment of research and governance systems on the lake. The UNDP/FAO Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP) provided data on status of the fish stocks and use of trawling in exploitation of haplochromines which were abundant in the lake. The EU Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Projects developed a fisheries management plan and set up a slot size for harvesting Nile perch. The Lake Victoria Environment Programs provided information on management environmental factors that were affecting the lake. There have been projects to improve management and utilization emerging fisheries especially of the small pelagic fishes supported by FAO, EU and IDRC and many other projects supported by development partners that have provided information on fisheries, environment and socio-economics of Lake Victoria and its basin. Similar initiatives have taken place on other African lakes. Since the resources and environment of the lake continue to change, the policies should be periodically adjusted and new ones made to address the changes.

Institutions

Management of lakes takes place at national level. There are research, academic and management institutions to generate information, develop and implement policies at national level. For lakes that are shared by more than one country, there are mechanisms on some lakes to harmonize the national measures

between the countries sharing a lake before being adapted by national governments and translated into national policies for implementation at national level. Some of the countries sharing the lakes have from historical times had regional mechanisms for harmonization of management measures to be implemented at national level. For instance, Lake Victoria has had institutions like the Lake Victoria Commission, The FAO/CIFA sub-committee for Lake Victoria, the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO), and the Lake Victoria Basin Commission (LVBC). Some of the lakes have established community Beach Management Units (BMUs) to work with other agencies in management of the resources of the lake. There have also been NGOs that have implemented projects on the lakes. There are, therefore some institutional structure to develop and implement policies for management of African lakes. They, however need to be networked to share information since many of the problems affecting the lakes are similar to reduce transaction costs both human and financial.

Funding

Limited funding has been a major constraint to collection of the information and data to guide development of policies and implementation of management measures which has led to heavy dependence on development partners. This is, however not sustainable and there is need to develop

sustainable mechanisms for funding development activities on different lakes. Some countries such as those around Lake Victoria have attempted to develop funding mechanisms through generation of funds from the lake but this has so far not been successful. Efforts should be made to reduce transaction cost of implementing projects through collaborative effort and sharing of information.

Management information systems

The programs implemented on the lakes have generated information which has been translated into policies for management of the lakes. Much of the information generated has, however remained scattered, inaccessible, and many time in forms that cannot be easily accessible and applied in

management of the lakes. The available information also needs to be regularly updated. There is need to have systems to mobilize, package, and make information and data accessible in forms that can be used by a wide range of stakeholders to increase awareness and facilitate action in sustainable use of African lakes. Specific efforts should be made to apply the concept of digital for development (D4D) to tap into the rapid increase in utilization virtual systems and mobile applications in economic development. Outreach invents should be organised by partners around individual lakes. Experts from different lakes should meet at least once every three to five years to share information on different lakes and agree on future plans.